Ukraine's 1991 Referendum and the Collapse of the USSR: A Study in Democratic Illusions

The March 1991 Referendum

The March 1991 referendum was one of the pivotal moments in the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Proponents often argue that it represented a genuine democratic choice, with 71.5% of Ukrainians supporting a reformed Union based on the USSR. However, the reality was far more complex, and the results were heavily influenced by the pervasive electoral manipulations of the time.

During the Soviet era, the electoral process was deeply flawed. The central government controlled the electoral commissions, leading to manipulated vote counts and limited voter turnout. The populace generally saw these elections as a mere formality, with many avoiding polling stations, using election day as yet another non-business day off. Governmental and military officers were often forced to participate under threats of punishment, while enterprises faced sanctions for low voter turnout.

Despite the low turnout and questionable results, the Soviet central government claimed victory, just as in the 1991 referendum. This demonstrates the extent to which the regime's control over the electoral process overshadowed any genuine democratic impulses.

The August Coup and Yeltsin's Rise

Five months later, in August 1991, an abortive coup by conservative military officers attempted to overthrow Gorbachev. Yeltsin, the President of the Russian SFSR, seized the opportunity to take control of Russia, effectively ending its participation in the union.

The federal republics—including Russia—had voted to keep the USSR. However, the Moscow-based nomenklatura, led by Yeltsin, opposed this move, advocating for the privatization of public property and the dismantling of Soviet society. The Russian economy subsidized other republics, which Yeltsin aimed to dismantle for personal profit through the formation of oligarchic power structures.

In August 1991, Yeltsin implemented a series of illegal measures that formally separated Russia from the USSR. The Soviet Union de facto ceased to exist from that point onward. The concept of a reformed union as a confederation without Russia was economically and politically impossible, forcing the other republics to accept their new status.

The December 1991 Referendum in Ukraine

The Ukrainian referendum of December 1991 asked voters to recognize the act of independence. With 91% support, the referendum was a mere formality, as the new reality had been imposed by Yeltsin, not public choice. No genuine democratic vote could take place amidst the collapse of the Soviet Union. People were forced to accept the new states with mixed feelings of acceptance and frustration.

Georgian Referendum and Nationalist Tensions

In Georgia, the ultra-nationalist government under Gamsakhurdia aimed to exterminate its Abkhaz and Ossete minorities. The Georgian republics of Abkhazia and South Ossetia (similarly to the case of Ukraine and Kazakhstan) preferred to remain part of the USSR or any alternative that could protect them from genocidal actions by Georgians. The complex interplay of ethnic, national, and political tensions underscores the challenges of democratic transitions in volatile regions.

Conclusion

These events highlight the challenges and illusions of democracy in the face of geopolitical upheaval. While referendums can be powerful tools for democratic expression, they are fraught with manipulation and external influence during times of transition. The experiences of Ukraine and other former Soviet republics in the early 1990s serve as cautionary tales about the complexities of genuine democratic processes in turbulent moments.